Molecular Biology used in environmental science for the betterment of environment
- CHARITH AKLANSS DODANGODAGE -
In the 20th century, there were a lot of environmental pollution problems which had not been solved. However, the new types of environmental pollutions are still coming with as fast as the technology innovations in 21st century. Therefore, not only the old problems are needed to solve by new techniques, but also the new problems are required to figure out the answers. Molecular biotechnology/biology is considered as one of the most important subjects which can prevent the pollution and recover our environment becoming healthy. In this report we will focus on how the environmental science and technology appellation of molecular biotechnology/biology try to enhance the environmental pollution prevention and reclamation at the following parts: environmental monitor and inspection, pollutant removal, soil and groundwater treatment, molecular nanotechnology, green technology, and examination responsibility of environmental disputes.
Since 20th century, the problems of the environmental pollution have become worst. Facing the new science and technology improvement so fast in the present time, could these old problems of environmental protection break through the bottleneck by the new technology? The answer is positive because of the progress of molecular biotechnology. No matter on the microbial detection, pollutant appraised, pollution control, green production, or risk assessed…etc., the molecular biotechnology can be used for every kind of mediums, such as environmental monitor, environmental inspection, and removal pollutants. For this writing, we attempt to analyze and classify the new technical applications of molecular biotechnology which will help us to understand the power and benefits of those significant techniques. For example, consider an environment in which pollution of a particular type is the most of all. Let us think about the effluents of a food industry which has mixed up with a local water body like a lake or pond. We can find huge deposits of food wastes which are not so easily taken up for degradation by microorganisms except for a few exemptions. We isolate a few microorganisms from the polluted site and scan for any significant changes in their genome like mutations or evolutions. Such this kind of process, we can usually find which all applications of molecule biotechnology are using for monitoring and inspecting then we can find the way to treat those pollutants. We will use some regions/technologies of molecular biology to describe the environmental benefits of molecular biotechnology/biology.
1. Biodegradation
2. Molecular biology to fight Acid rains
3. Biosensors
4. DNA and RNA extraction for analyze microbes
5. Green technology
6. Bioremediation/Molecular nanotechnology
7. Bioplastics
8. Soil and ground water treatment
9. Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH)
10. Molecular ecology
11. Biofuels
Biodegradation
Below we will explain Biodegradation of environmental pollutant through molecular pathway engineering and genetically modified organisms’ approaches
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is a term used frequently for the organism whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA technology (r-DNA technology). In the modern era GMOs are used in medical and biological applications, gene therapy (knockout mouse), production of pharmaceutical products (Insulin), agriculture (Golden rice), Bt crop (Bt Cotton), and environmental safety like bioremediation. The use of genetic engineering approaches has altered several metabolic pathways in microorganism and plants that have been improved for the degradation and bioaccumulation of hazardous environmental pollutants, a process known as bioremediation. Here we are focusing on the possibilities of genetic engineering/pathway engineering approaches for the removal of environmental waste using GMO approaches. In phytoremediation genetically improved/designed plants are used for the removal of toxic heavy metals. These processes are environment friendly. In myco-remediation, mycorrhizal fungi are involved in the degradation of toxic and harmful pollutants. Even though the horizontal type of gene transfer is common in nature, unknown effects can be possible by making alterations in the natural state of an organism by expressing a foreign gene. Such modifications can affect the growth rate, metabolism, and/or response to environmental factors of the organism. There are some issues with GMO like their long-term effects, gene stability, and their effect on other organisms, including with respect to human and environmental safety. However, there are no definite ways to ensure that such unexpected consequences will not occur.
DNA and RNA extraction
Microorganisms are well suited for environmental assessment because they can react quickly to environmental changes. Extraction kits are often used to extract DNA and RNA. Following extraction, molecular biological approaches such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are used to classify microorganism genetic and functional diversity.
Traditionally, culturing techniques or microscopic observation has been used to analyze microbial in the environment. Since the discovery of modern molecular techniques focused on the extraction and characterization of DNA from the environment, the revolution has arrived.
Environmental DNA refers to the genetic material that can be obtained from bulk environmental samples such as soil, water, and even air. The DNA analysis may reveal the density of microbial communities and their genetic and functional diversity. Microbial molecular techniques, including the analysis DNA, RNA, protein, and metabolite, are used describe microbial community in environment and their regulation by environmental factors. DNA and RNA extraction is important for carrying out forensic science, sequencing genomes, detecting bacteria and viruses in the environment and for determining paternity.
At the present time, DNA extraction kits are most commonly used to extract genomic DNA from environmental samples. Meta transcriptomics is the study of RNA isolated from environmental samples. In general, RNA is translated into cDNA and sequenced in a manner analogous to metagenomics. This method is used to examine the inventory of dynamically expressed genes in a study.
The nucleus in plants is covered by a nuclear membrane, which is enclosed by a cell membrane and a cell wall. To separate and purify the DNA from the rest of the cell, four steps are taken.
Lysis
Precipitation
Washing
Resuscitation
Lysis
In plant DNA extraction, this step commonly refers to the breakdown of the cell wall and cellular membranes (most importantly, the plasma and nuclear membranes). Mechanical force (for example, grinding the leaves) disrupts the cellulose-based cell wall, which is then broken down by the addition of a detergent.
Detergents can disrupt membranes due to the amphipathic (having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions) nature of both cellular membranes and detergent molecules. The detergent molecules have the ability to separate the membranes. The contents of the plant cells are dispersed in solution as a part of LYSIS.
Preparation
This is a process that separates DNA from the rest of the cellular components. The first stage of precipitation in a testing lab involves the use of phenol/chloroform to separate the proteins from the DNA. Proteins are denatured by phenol, and denatured proteins dissolve. Chloroform is a protein denaturant as well. The second section of the test lab. The incorporation of salts results in DNA precipitation. The salts disrupt the hydrogen bonds that exist between water and DNA molecules. The DNA is then precipitated from the protein using isopropanol or ethanol in a subsequent step.
In the presence of cations, ethanol induces a structural transformation that causes DNA molecules to aggregate and precipitate out of solution. By rotating the DNA in a centrifuge and scraping the supernatant, the DNA is pelleted.
Washing
Acetate salts cling to the precipitated DNA. It is "washed" with a 70% ethanol solution to eliminate salts and other water-soluble impurities while not resuspending the DNA.
Resuspension
To maintain reliability and long-term preservation, the clean DNA is now resuspended in a buffer.
The most widely used resuscitation buffer is known as 1xTE.
DNA Extraction
Break down the cell wall and membranes.
Centrifuge to separate the solids from the dissolved DNA.
Precipitate the DNA using isopropanol.
Centrifuge to separate the DNA from the dissolved salts and sugars.
Wash the DNA pellet with Ethanol and dry the pellet.
Dissolve DNA
Using the following basic procedure to evaluate the accuracy of your DNA extraction:
10 L of DNA can be mixed with 10 L of loading buffer.
Fill a 1 percent agarose gel with this mixture.
Expected Results in a Research Lab
An agarose gel with 5 genomic DNA samples from different plants as shown below. It's worth noting that the DNA has a very high molecular weight and appears as a clear, thick band. This DNA was isolated under ideal conditions in a testing lab.
Genomic DNA of 5 species of cereals
Sizes of Genomic DNA for various Species in kbp E. Coli 4,640,000bp Yeast 12,100,000bp Fruit Fly 140,000,000bp Human 3,000,000,000bp Pea 4,800,000,000bp Wheat 17,000,000,000bp If performed correctly, genomic extraction can produce bright bands in the very high base pair range of a gel electrophoresis.
The genomic fragments run at ~12kbp because they are sheared during extraction
Biosensors A biosensor is defined as a device that either detects, records, and transmits information related to a physiological change/process in a biological system, or uses biological materials to monitor the presence of various chemicals in a substance. It measures biological or chemical reactions by generating signals proportional to the concentration of an analyte in the reaction. Immunosensors, aptasensors, genosensors, and enzymatic biosensors have all been identified for the identification and tracking of different environmental toxins, with antibodies, aptamers, nucleic acids, and enzymes serving as recognition components, respectively. As well as they can be used to disease monitoring, drug discovery, and detection of pollutants. A substance of interest that needs detection. For instance, glucose is a ‘analyte’ in a biosensor designed to detect glucose. A bioreceptor is a molecule that recognizes the analyte directly. Bioreceptors include enzymes, cells, aptamers, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and antibodies. Bio-recognition refers to the method of generating a signal (in the form of light, heat, pH, charge or mass transition, etc.) as a result of the interaction of the bioreceptor with the analyte. Microbial whole-cell, enzymes, antibodies, and DNA are the most common types of bioreceptor components used in environmental science. Furthermore, electrochemical transducers are used in the majority of environmental biosensors mentioned in the literature.
Green technology
Another main region to describe the benefits to the environment along with the molecular biology path is the green technology. Green technology can be described as any technology that can reduce the impact of humans on the environment. The main goal of this technology is to conserve nature, and to remedy the negative impact that humans have on it. This is a highly accepted way to breathe life back into the damaged ecosystem. Green technology is also referred as clean technology and environmental technology. Molecular biology is the study of the composition, structure, and interaction of cellular molecules in a cell. With the combination of these two areas humans have developed technologies that can be used for the betterment of our environment and which can be used with minimum harm to the environment. There are few areas of green technology that comes with molecular biology. They are,
Transgenic technology
Green energy
Green production
Natural attenuation
1. Transgenic technology
Transgenic technology is a process of introducing foreign DNA into a genome of a host Organism to create a better version of the host Organism under the expression of a modified gene. This is mainly used in animals and plants to reduce the harm on the environment that can happen by their normal composition.
Example: In a research done by Golvan and his group, they have discovered and created a new technology called “transgenic pigs” that can alter a pig's gene. Unique phytases (enzymes) were found in the saliva of transgenic pigs, and these phytases could aid the pigs in decomposing phosphate in the setting. As a result, the need to add inorganic phosphorus to the feed, and the phosphorus content of swine wastes has been reduced by around 75% automatically. A normal pig requires 2.5kg of calcium phosphate during its life; however, a transgenic pig does not need any calcium phosphate. Consequently, by minimizing swine waste, could minimize emissions in our environment. This showed that the new molecular biotechnology can really help to decrease the pollution in our environment on the animal husbandry.
Figure 1: transgenic pig’s phosphate decomposition
2. Green energy
Green energy is the energy generated from natural resources and which does not pollute the environment. Green energy is a term used to describe environmentally sustainable and cost-effective power and energy sources. It generally applies to non-polluting and renewable energy sources. Green energy is made up of natural and energetic processes that pollute the environment minimally. Anaerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, geothermal power, wind power, small-scale hydropower, solar power, biomass power, and tidal power are examples of renewable energy sources. Switching to green power can help improve the environmental profile and providing other valuable benefits. Using green power helps to support renewable energy development and reduces the carbon footprint associated with our lives currently.
Example: Methane production from waste is a main example for green energy. Ethanol is a green fuel that can be made from a wide range of biomass sources. Corn is used to make most of the fuel ethanol in the United States. And also, the sludge from corns can be used to make methane by anaerobic digestion.
Figure 2: production of green energy using waste.
3. Green production
Green production can be simply described as a business strategy that focuses on profitability through environmentally friendly operating processes. It is, in turn, the “greening” of manufacturing, in which employees use fewer natural resources, create less pollution and waste, recycle and reuse products, and moderate emissions in their operations. Green production can be used to reduce the cost of environmental pollution treatment also. The hope of green production is to help human beings with exploring more solutions to the problems that what the traditional industrial agriculture cannot answer.
Example: production of BT-Corn can be taken as an example for this. BT-Corn is the type of Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). This has been modified as a plant that can eliminate the need of external application of pesticides. Corn plant has been modified by using the genetic material of Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria. This production has given the corn plant the ability to protect pests, pesticide tolerance, high yield, and also economic advantages too. Not only BT-Corn but also many genetically modified crops can be taken as examples for this.
Figure 3: self-resistance to pests by BT-Corn
4. Natural attenuation
Natural attenuation and bioremediation can be described as variety of physical, chemical, or biological processes that act to reduce the mass, toxicity, mobility, volume, or concentration of contaminants in soil or groundwater under favorable conditions. And also, these can be simply described as methods to treat polluted environments which microorganisms help with pollutant degradation. Which means this is an application of living organisms such as microbes & bacteria in removal of contaminants, pollutants and toxins from soil, water, sea, and other parts of the environment. As an example, Bioremediation may be used to clean up contaminated groundwater or environmental problems. Monitored natural attenuation is used for risk assessment and endpoint forecasting this is done by carefully monitoring the polluted area. When a rapid removal of pollutants is needed bioremediation can be used.
The technique of bioremediation is stimulating the growth of microorganisms using contaminants such as oil and pesticides as a food source or an energy source. These microorganisms convert contaminants into small amounts of harmless substances such as water and harmless gases like carbon dioxide. Bioremediation requires a combination of the right temperature, nutrients, and foods. If these elements were not supplied the cleanup of the contaminants would be prolonged. And also, by supplying amendments such as molasses, vegetable oil to the environment we can accelerate the completion of bioremediation process. These methods can minimize the damage to the ecosystem, it’s cheaper than most cleanup methods, and it Doesn’t require labors or substantial equipment.
Example: in an oil spill, bioremediation is the best method of cleanup because its effective and lower cost than other options. There are two types of bioremediation that can be used for oil spill cleanups.
• Bioaugmentation
In this method they introduce a small number of microbes that breakdown the oil.
• Bio stimulation
In this method they add nutrients to stimulate the microbes that are already in that polluted area.
Prior to the use of bioremediation methods, it was common to use chemicals to clean, but those chemicals can have damaging effects on the environment. Instead, bioremediation utilizes enzyme cleaners to breakdown, clean, and sanitize biohazardous materials and surfaces.
Figure 4: process of bioremediation in soil and water purification.
Molecular nanotechnology
Molecular nanotechnology is the technical method that can design complex structures using chemosynthesis process, to obtain correct atomic specifications. These nano products are made by nano machines. This process is based on molecular manufacturing not nano materials. This full process is combined with physical theories with chemical demonstrations, nanotechnologies, and other methods used in macro scale factories. This method used to definite and clear process to make result. This is multi step reaction process. It uses fully balanced chemical reactions, and these results are used again to build new reaction system.
Acid rains
Acid rains are huge problem in today world. NO2 and SO2 are main reasons to acid rains. There are most harmful effects in acid rains such as acidification of natural water lakes, consequential damage of forests and destroy paints on surface of buildings. In addition, SO2, NO2 and their derivatives can make visible degradation and it can make harmful effects to public health.
According to molecular nanotechnology, we can use nano-desulfurizer method to control acid rains. This nano-desulfurizer is sent to atmosphere. It can absorb SO2 gas and result is reduce acid rains. And, we have nano Sulphur precipitator. It contains Ca and Mg. when it is sent to the upper atmosphere, it can oxidize SO2 to CaSO4 and MgSO4 salts. In addition, newly invented molecular nano method is nano-catalytic converter. It can convert NOx to N2 and O2 in upper atmosphere.
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Figure 2: catalytic converter method
Global warming
Global warming is the largest environmental problem now a days. Greenhouse gas method is the main system which control environmental temperature. CO2 is the main greenhouse gas. Although the greenhouse effect is essential for the survival of the world, global warming is currently on the rise due to the increase in greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuel is the main reason is to increase CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Released CO2 capture large number of solar rays and absorb it. It is the main system that increase the global warming. If we can reduce the burning of hydrocarbon fuels, it is very important to control global warming. We can apply molecular nanotechnological methods to produce energy.
Figure 3: greenhouse effect
Molecular nanotechnology can produce nanomachines or nanobots such as nano chlorophyll, nano photosynthesize and nano carbon fixers. These nano bots, which are powered by cheap solar energy, can be used to remove excess co2 from the atmosphere as well as be converted into many useful materials. Nanorobots can remove carbon that can be used to make usable and structural materials. Other nanorobots will remove it, and it can then be synthesized into sugar, starch, and cellulose to make substitutes.
Nano smart material
Smart materials are items made at the nanometer scale to perform a specific purpose. In the field of nanotechnology, it has already proven to be extremely useful.As it comes into contact with various molecules, it is useful in providing the correct response.As a result, synthetic drugs could be developed that could quickly identify and eliminate particular viruses.Self-healing structures, like human skin, are another smart material concept. They can be used to remove tiny tears from the surface.
A smart material is another name for a Nano sensor. The only distinction is that a nanoscale component will be controlled by a larger computer. This system reacts to its surroundings and makes the changes that are expected. The photosensor is the best example of a Nano sensor. The device measures the amount of light that strikes its surface, converts it to energy, and then passes it on to a larger device. When converted to nanoscale, such a sensor would be much less expensive and use much less power than traditional sensors. However, their applications are limited.
Figure 4: Nano sensor
Replicating nanorobots
The primary goal of molecular nanotechnology is to build hundreds of nanorobots that operate in tandem. These nanorobots should also be able to design and generate more nanorobots in an artificial environment using sophisticated building blocks. There has always been a nagging question in my mind about the feasibility of nanorobots and their replicating capabilities. There is a concern that replication will result in differences in characteristics from the parent robots.Nanorobots have also made a name for themselves in the medical field. When a group of nanorobots is built to operate in the medical field, a large number of patients can be cared for at once, and for hours. These robots can also help fix genetic defects and extend people's lives. These nanorobots can be programmed to mimic human motions, but they cannot self-replicate inside the human body.
Figure 4: nano robots in medical fields
Utility fog is another simple MNT application, in which a network of nanorobots is connected so that they can adjust their characteristics in response to changes in software commands. Physical objects used for multitasking can be replaced by nanorobots using this approach.
Figure 5: utility fog
Advantages of molecular nanotechnology MNT will aid in the development of highly accurate machines, such as computers, in the future, and at nanoscales.MNT products would be more robust and durable than existing devices made of iron or other alloys. All of the required items in our daily lives, such as tables, cars, and other vehicles, can be manufactured at low costs with increased performance, reduced weight, and increased durability. Due to their small scale, these instruments can be used to create small surgical tools that can be inserted into our bodies to scan for and kill cancer cells and other virus infections. They can also be used to dissolve clots to provide oxygen in the event of circulatory problems. Nanotechnology would undoubtedly usher in a whole new era of product development. Every product in the world will have a new look, and the devices we use every day will become more accurate.
Risks regarding molecular nanotechnology The threat of technical singularity is one of the most serious concerns with MNT. That is, the technology's positive aspects may be used for negative purposes, such as the creation of lethal weapons.These weapons have the potential to self-replicate and trigger global disruption. As a result, guidelines for the authorization of such illegal weapons and their self-replication must be created. Another problem is that if nanorobots will self-replicate to a high degree, there is a good risk they can consume all of the world's raw materials. Grey goo is a common term for such a problem.
Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
This is a laboratory technique is used for detecting and locating a specific DNA sequence on a chromosome to a small DNA sequence called probe that has a fluorescent molecule attached to it. This is based on the hybridization of DNA probes to species-specific regions of bacterial ribosomes. In environmental field this technique is used to detect the presence of specific groups of Bacteria and Archaea microbes.
This technique very useful for identification of microbes in the environment samples. Since its origins some 20 years ago FISH technique is become an invaluable tool for environmental microbiologists and has spawned numerous variations. The first reason for this popularity is FISH allows the detection of cells regardless of their cultivability. With as little as 0.3% of bacteria in soil and <0.1% in marine water being culturable FISH offers a glimpse at the full bacterial biodiversity. The second reason is possibility to identify cells in situ allows an insight into the structure of microbial communities and may help to unveil their ecological function.
Inside active cells, molecules called rRNA are involved in the synthesis of proteins which are manufactured according to a specific code which is carried in the strand of DNA in the cell. In the lab, it is possible to artificially manufacture a probe which is a small strand of DNA which will match exactly with the sequence on a specific rRNA target molecule. This probe can be labelled with a fluorescent dye and will bind on the basis of complementary base pairing to the matching DNA in the cells. The fluorescent dye allows the cell to be observed under a microscope. The technique allows for the direct quantification of specific types of Bacteria and Archaea in microbial populations without the need to culture the cells in growth media. Only living cells contain sufficient rRNA to allow identification by FISH.
FISH analysis provides an analytical technique for detailed study of microbial populations in both natural and engineered environments. For the environmental application, we can use FISH not only to detect the bacteria and virus easily, but also to get the accurate location in our sample.
Advantages of the FISH Microbial Detection Method are it gives a rapid results that means results gives in 2 to 3 days, FISH counts are 99% accurate, giving higher count than traditional viable counts, FISH can identify specific groups of SRB (Sulfate reducing bacteria) within the general SRB population, the sample can be preserved on site, FISH requires no prior knowledge of the environmental conditions of the system.
Figure 01. fluorescent in situ hybridization
Soil And Ground water treatment
Biological treatment technology has become one of the main technologies for wastewater treatment. There are microbial diversity and regulatory factors of activated sludge used in water resource recovery facility. There are a lot of pollutants in the soil and ground water. Trichloroethylene (TCE) is one type of pollutants that we mostly can find in the soil and ground water. That pollutants can decompose at aerobic and anaerobic conditions and need to process during co-metabolism and at aerobic condition. Furthermore, in order to decompose those pollutants, we need appropriate enzymes in microorganisms’ bodies to be one kind of proteins. Composing those proteins, we need DNA to transfer the message to mRNA. During this transferring process, we also need RNA polymerase. The position of DNA and RNA polymerase is at the special space on the promoter; therefore, increasing the numbers of mRNA and increasing the activity of the promoter can directly or indirectly multiply enzymes we need. As the result, we can increase the decomposition of microorganisms’ ability. There are several similar techniques to do that.
01. Using starvation signals to stimulate the activity of promoter, it can make few polymerase do its’ function. Then, the DNA also can transfer to mRNA easier.
02. Using the other genies’ recombination to produce hybrid, it will produce original bacteria have widely substrate specificity to induce other pollutants degrading.
03. By inducing the genie mutation, it can increase the survival rate of microorganism.
By the way of these techniques, it can increase the decomposition ability of microorganism and reduce the time spending of soil pollution treatment.
Extracellular polymers (EPSs) are a mixture mainly composed of proteins and polysaccharides, which play an important role in wastewater treatment. That EPS plays a role in microbial aggregation, biodegradation, and environmental stress in wastewater treatment.
A large amount of excess sludge will be produced in the process of wastewater treatment. The waste activated sludge alkaline fermentation liquor is converted into medium‐chain fatty acids by chain elongation, which not only avoids pollution but also produces value.
Heavy metals enter the soil mainly through the different human activities. The results are the different land‐use patterns result in different soil properties and heavy metal accumulation. When calculating the risks of heavy metals to the environment, the total amount and availability of heavy metals should be taken as the main inspection indicators.
Plastic products will eventually be decomposed into microplastics in the environment, which are widely distributed in land and water. In soil, microplastics interact with heavy metals, accelerating the migration of heavy metals and aggravating the harm of heavy metals to soil organisms and plants. Aluminum can limit plant growth in acidic soils. And calcium can reduce the growth inhibition of aluminum on Arabidopsis thaliana.
Phytoremediation is an effective method to solve the problem of soil pollution. For example, grass Papalism distichum L. can reduce the concentration of mercury in soil. However, some soil properties like salinity and heavy metals are extremely unfavorable to the growth of plants, limiting the application of phytoremediation. Microbes can be used as an effective adjuvant to strengthen phytoremediation of saline soil polluted by heavy metal. This is also an economical and effective treatment method.
Figure 02. Process of Phytoremediation
Omic techniques can be combined with other techniques to evaluate the toxicity of pollutants in the natural environment.
The microorganisms in the degradation process of solid wastes that show that the composition and function of microorganisms in different stages were different. The community structure of microorganisms can be adjusted by changing physical and chemical factors, which provide a new idea for the development of biological products degraded by solid wastes.
Molecular Ecology
By the late 1800s, researchers realized that some environmental questions could be answered by examining the molecular composition of organisms. The first attempt to use molecules to solve an environmental problem was made by the church in the 1860s. The church studied the relationship between birds and found that the tyrosine pigment was found only in birds of the family Musophagidae. He and others concluded that evolutionary relationships could be inferred from the distribution of specific molecules. Early studies were limited to organic molecules derived from food, and sometimes relationships between organisms can be confusing. However, the idea that the study of molecules can be a useful technology for understanding animals, their relationships, and their evolution has been firmly planted in the minds of the scientific community. It was with this idea that the discipline of molecular ecology finally emerged.
What is Molecular Ecology? As we can see, it is an interdisciplinary approach to some of the most fundamental questions in organic biology. Today, some scientists do not consider it their own discipline, and in some cases, it is an "approach" taken to answer certain questions. However, most scientists agree that it is different from other studies on organic biology. Molecular ecology is defined as "the application of molecular methods to answer environmental problems". In this article, we explore the tools used in molecular ecology and how these tools enhance traditional environmental studies. We examine a number of sperm studies that have used molecular environmental tools. We also discuss the limitations of molecular ecology.
Answering Ecological Questions with Molecular Techniques
Some of the oldest molecular ecological studies involved examining the mating systems of birds. It has long been believed that birds are homogeneous. DNA samples of parents and their children challenged this idea. In fact, it has been found that extra pairs are often copied between bird species that are thought to be unilateral. As a result of the widespread use of DNA samples by parents and their children, it has now been realized that only a very small number of bird species follow a strictly uniform mating system. The behavior of mating has been described using the molecular techniques of many other organisms, including pipefish, frogs, beetles, and turtles.
Our understanding of habitat use as a result of molecular methods has changed. Estimation use is relatively simple when animals can be found and directly observed using their habitats. What happens when specific habitat usage patterns cannot be directly observed? A number of studies have been conducted on the genetic makeup of populations that are evenly distributed across a specific landscape. These studies have found that populations are highly structured, indicating that organisms prefer to settle in other habitats and mate. These findings contradicted the distribution patterns observed at the landscape level because observational approaches were unable to detect mating patterns.
Early studies of the use of molecular techniques also found evidence of marginal variability between physically similar individuals within a species. In fact, several studies of salamanders belonging to the genus Platoons have shown that there are extreme genetic differences between animals that look similar. These early studies show a mixture of different placentonide genes in individuals, providing evidence of hybridization between different species, information not yet available by conventional environmental methods. The identification of cryptic species has become extremely important in the field of conservation genetics, especially with regard to the protection of endangered species. For example, the spotted frog Rana pruritus found in the northwestern United States shows no physical difference between populations. However, genetic analysis has revealed that the population of Oregon is genetically different from other populations in the Pacific Northwest. The discovery of genetic variation within a species led to the classification of two separate species, both of which are now preserved. The existence of cryptic species is not surprising, as these organisms and many others rely on invisible signals such as chemicals and / or sound to identify a mate. Molecular ecology has allowed researchers to explore why there are genetic differences when there are no morphological differences. Molecular ecology not only allows the identification of genetic variations, but also certain phenomena.
In addition to finding solutions to the problem of cryptocurrency, molecular approaches have also played an important role in the conservation of endangered species. For example, molecular studies have been used to identify the migration corridor between populations that can prevent the isolation of endangered populations. Molecular approaches have also been used to identify perfect populations for transition to an endangered or declining population, methods for maximizing genetic variation in captive animals, and identifying barrier-free products. When the only remnant of the harvested animal is a piece of meat, bone, or fur, it is especially important to identify the endangered species in order to sue the hunters for the harvest. In fact, although the tissue is cooked and mixed with other raw materials, specialized molecular technologies based on DNA based on the tissue have been developed.
Trade
It can be seen that the development of molecular ecology as a field of study operates in parallel with the development of what becomes a tool of trade: the molecular marker. Molecular markers are parts of a living gene. These fragments of DNA can be easily retrieved by a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Figure 2). Molecular ecology uses different types of DNA markers, Among them are: microsatellites (highly repetitive sequences of DNA that are rapidly mutated and often used to identify individuals), humanocytes (similar to microsatellites but with longer iterative sequences), boundary fractional multimeters (RFLPs, and species). Rarely - in individuals) specific sites of DNA that can be cut by enzymes that produce different sizes of DNA, and DNA sequencing data (determined on the basis of DNA and compare similarities and differences to identify species, populations and individuals) (Figure 3). These markers are by no means an exhaustive list, and the markings (or markers) one chooses to use will depend largely on the type of question being addressed in the study.
One of the reasons for the rapid advancement of molecular ecology as a field of study is the advent of PCR. PCR is capable of amplifying billions of copies of a specific piece of DNA from a genome, with very few initial copies. In other words, a small sample of tissue can be taken to obtain sufficient DNA for the study. This is often different from previous approaches that required large DNA or proteins, which often meant killing the organism being studied. Undoubtedly, killing one of the study organisms could be counter-intuitive, especially if the purpose of the study is to advance conservation or protect endangered species. The fact that only a small amount of DNA is now required for molecular environmental studies has opened the door to non-invasive sampling methods. It is now possible to isolate DNA from hair, urine, skin and dead urine, thereby preventing damage to endangered and non-endangered species. PCR also enhances the old and / or degenerate DNA found in fossils (Figure 2).
The development of molecular traits has led to the explosion of studies that have been used to answer questions such as the relationship between species, the evolutionary history of populations, the extent of genetic variation within a species, patterns of behavior, and patterns of gene expression. May vary between closely related populations, and many other aspects of organic variability. For example, in one of the oldest molecular ecological studies, O'Brien and his colleagues (1983) found that genetic diversity between cheetahs in South Africa was extremely low (Fig. 4). Of course, O’Brien et al. (1985) performed skin grafting between different cheetahs, which found that cheetahs were so genetically similar but their immune system did not reject tissue grafting. This and other early studies have led to a debate about the importance of genetic diversity for population survival and how genetic diversity relates to environmental change. If every organism in a population had the same genetic makeup, it would respond equally to any environmental change. If this environmental change interferes with an organism's ability to survive or reproduce, it will affect all genetically identical individuals in the population in the same way, increasing their risk of extinction. However, this does not always happen because sometimes a genetically similar population develops. Therefore, the importance of genetic diversity for population survival continues to be debated.
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